The History of Gombe Game Reserve (Chimps Home in Tanzania)
Most of us don’t enter upon our life’s destiny at any neatly discernible time. Jane Goodall did.
On the morning of July 14, 1960, she stepped onto a pebble beach
along a remote stretch of the east shore of Lake Tanganyika. It was her
first arrival at what was then called the Gombe Stream Game Reserve, a
small protected area that had been established by the British colonial
government back in 1943. She had brought a tent, a few tin plates, a cup
without a handle, a shoddy pair of binoculars, an African cook named
Dominic, and
—as a companion, at the insistence of people who feared for
her safety in the wilds of pre-independence Tanganyika—her mother. She
had come to study chimpanzees. Or anyway, to try. Casual observers
expected her to fail. One person, the paleontologist Louis Leakey, who
had recruited her to the task up in Nairobi, believed she might succeed.
A group of local men, camped near their fishing nets along the
beach, greeted the Goodall party and helped bring up the gear. Jane and
her mother spent the afternoon putting their camp in order. Then, around
5 p.m., somebody reported having seen a chimpanzee. “So off we went,”
Jane wrote later that night in her journal, “and there was the chimp.”
She had gotten only a distant, indistinct glimpse. “It moved away as we
drew level with the crowd of fishermen gazing at it, and, though we
climbed the neighbouring slope, we didn’t see it again.” But she had
noticed, and recorded, some bent branches flattened together in a nearby
tree: a chimp nest. That datum, that first nest, was the starting point
of what has become one of the most significant ongoing sagas in modern
field biology: the continuous, minutely detailed, 50-year study, by Jane
Goodall and others, of the behavior of the chimps of Gombe.
Science history, with the charm of a fairy-tale legend, records
some of the high points and iconic details of that saga. Young Miss
Goodall had no scientific credentials when she began, not even an
undergraduate degree. She was a bright, motivated secretarial school
graduate from England who had always loved animals and dreamed of
studying them in Africa. She came from a family of strong women, little
money, and absent men. During the early weeks at Gombe she struggled,
groping for a methodology, losing time to a fever that was probably
malaria, hiking many miles in the forested mountains, and glimpsing few
chimpanzees, until an elderly male with grizzled chin whiskers extended
to her a tentative, startling gesture of trust. She named the old chimp
David Greybeard. Thanks partly to him, she made three observations that
rattled the comfortable wisdoms of physical anthropology: meat eating by
chimps (who had been presumed vegetarian), tool use by chimps (in the
form of plant stems probed into termite mounds), and toolmaking
(stripping leaves from stems), supposedly a unique trait of human
premeditation. Each of those discoveries further narrowed the perceived
gap of intelligence and culture between Homo sapiens and Pan troglodytes.
The toolmaking observation was the most epochal of the three,
causing a furor within anthropological circles because “man the
toolmaker” held sway as an almost canonical definition of our species.
Louis Leakey, thrilled by Jane’s news, wrote to her: “Now we must
redefine ‘tool,’ redefine ‘man,’ or accept chimpanzees as humans.” It
was a memorable line, marking a very important new stage in thinking
about human essence. Another interesting point to remember is that,
paradigm shifting or not, all three of those most celebrated discoveries
were made by Jane (everyone calls her Jane; there is no sensible way
not to call her Jane) within her first four months in the field. She got
off to a fast start. But the real measure of her work at Gombe can’t be
taken with such a short ruler.
The great thing about Gombe is not that Jane Goodall “redefined”
humankind but that she set a new standard, a very high standard, for
behavioral study of apes in the wild, focusing on individual
characteristics as well as collective patterns. She created a research
program, a set of protocols and ethics, an intellectual momentum—she
created, in fact, a relationship between the scientific world and one
community of chimpanzees—that has grown far beyond what one woman could
do. The Gombe project has enlarged in many dimensions, has endured
crises, has evolved to serve purposes that neither she nor Louis Leakey
foresaw, and has come to embrace methods (satellite mapping,
endocrinology, molecular genetics) and address questions that carry far
beyond the field of animal behavior. For instance, techniques of
molecular analysis, applied to fecal and urine samples that can be
gathered without need for capture and handling, reveal new insights
about genetic relationships among the chimps and the presence of disease
microbes in some of them. Still, a poignant irony that lies near the
heart of this scientific triumph, on its golden anniversary, is that the
more we learn about the chimps of Gombe, the more we have cause to
worry for their continued survival.
Two revelations in particular have raised concern. One involves
geography, the other involves disease. The world’s most beloved and
well-studied population of chimpanzees is isolated on an island of
habitat that’s too small for long-term viability. And now some of them
seem to be dying from their version of AIDS.
The issue of how to study chimpanzees, and of what can be inferred
from behavioral observations, has faced Jane Goodall since early in her
career. It began coming into focus after her first field season, when
Louis Leakey informed Jane of his next bright idea for shaping her life:
He would get her into a Ph.D. program in ethology at Cambridge
University.
This doctorate seemed a stretch on two counts. First, her lack of
any undergraduate degree whatsoever. Second, she had always aspired to
be a naturalist, or maybe a journalist, but the word “scientist” hadn’t
figured in her dreaming. “I didn’t even know what ethology was,” she
told me recently. “I had to wait quite a while before I realized it
simply meant studying behavior.” Once enrolled at Cambridge, she found
herself crosswise with departmental elders and the prevailing certitudes
of the field. “It was a bit shocking to be told I’d done everything
wrong. Everything.” By then she had 15 months of field data from Gombe,
most of it gathered through patient observation of individuals she knew
by monikers such as David Greybeard, Mike, Olly, and Fifi. Such
personification didn’t play well at Cambridge; to impute individuality
and emotion to nonhuman animals was anthropomorphism, not ethology.
“Fortunately, I thought back to my first teacher, when I was a child,
who taught me that that wasn’t true.” Her first teacher had been her
dog, Rusty. “You cannot share your life in a meaningful way with any
kind of animal with a reasonably well-developed brain and not realize
that animals have personalities.” She pushed back against the prevailing
view—one thing about gentle Jane, she always pushes back—and on
February 9, 1966, she became Dr. Jane Goodall.
In 1968 the little game reserve underwent its own graduation,
becoming Tanzania’s Gombe National Park. By then Jane was receiving
research funding from the National Geographic Society. She was married
and a mother and famous worldwide, owing in part to her articles for
this magazine and her comely, forceful presence in a televised film, Miss Goodall and the Wild Chimpanzees.
She had institutionalized her field camp, in order to fund and
perpetuate it, as the Gombe Stream Research Center (GSRC). In 1971 she
published In the Shadow of Man, her account of the early Gombe
studies and adventures, which became a best seller. Around the same
time, she began hosting students and graduate researchers to help with
chimp-data collection and other research at Gombe. Her influence on
modern primatology, noisily bruited about by Leakey, is more quietly
suggested by the long list of Gombe alums who have gone on to do
important scientific work, including Richard Wrangham, Caroline Tutin,
Craig Packer, Tim Clutton-Brock, Geza Teleki, William McGrew, Anthony
Collins, Shadrack Kamenya, Jim Moore, and Anne Pusey. The last of those,
Pusey, now professor and chair of evolutionary anthropology at Duke
University, also serves the Jane Goodall Institute (established in 1977)
as director of its Center for Primate Studies. Among other duties, she
curates the 22 file cabinets full of field data—the notebooks and
journal pages and check sheets, some in English, some in Swahili—from 50
years of chimp study at Gombe.
That 50-year run suffered one traumatic interruption. On the night
of May 19, 1975, three young Americans and a Dutch woman were kidnapped
by rebel soldiers who had come across Lake Tanganyika from Zaire. The
four hostages were eventually released, but it no longer seemed prudent
for the Gombe Stream Research Center to welcome expatriate researchers
and helpers—as Anthony Collins explained to me.
Collins was then a young British biologist with muttonchop
sideburns and a strong interest in baboons, the other most conspicuous
primate at Gombe. In addition to his baboon research, he has continued
to play important administrative roles in the Jane Goodall Institute and
at GSRC itself, off and on, for almost 40 years. He recalls May 19,
1975, as “the day the world changed, as far as Gombe was concerned.”
Collins was absent that night but returned promptly to help cope with
the aftermath. “It was not entirely bad,” he told me. The bad part was
that foreign researchers could no longer work at Gombe; Jane herself
couldn’t work there, not without a military escort, for some years. “The
good thing about it was that the responsibility for data collection
went straightaway, the following day, to the Tanzanian field staff.”
Those Tanzanians had each received at least a year’s training in data
collection but still functioned partly as trackers, helping locate the
chimps, identifying plants, and making sure the mzungu (white)
researchers got back to camp safely each night before dark. Then came
the kidnapping, whereupon the Tanzanians stepped up, and “on that day
the baton was passed to them,” Collins said. Only one day’s worth of
data was missed. Today the chief of chimpanzee researchers at Gombe is
Gabo Paulo, supervising the field observations and data gathering of
Methodi Vyampi, Magombe Yahaya, Amri Yahaya, and 20 other Tanzanians.
Human conflicts overflowing from neighboring countries weren’t the
only sort of tribulation that affected Gombe. Chimpanzee politics could
also be violent. Beginning in 1974, the Kasekela community (the main
focus of Gombe research) conducted a series of bloody raids against a
smaller subgroup called Kahama. That period of aggression, known in
Gombe annals as the Four Year War, led to the death of some individuals,
the annihilation of the Kahama subgroup, and the annexation of its
territory by Kasekela. Even within the Kasekela community, struggles
among males for the alpha position are highly political and physical,
while among females there have been cases of one mother killing a rival
mother’s infant. “When I first started at Gombe,” Jane has written, “I
thought the chimps were nicer than we are. But time has revealed that
they are not. They can be just as awful.”
Gombe was never Eden. Disease intruded too. In 1966 came an
outbreak of something virulent (probably polio, contracted from humans
nearby), and six chimps died or disappeared. Six others were partially
paralyzed. Two years later, David Greybeard and four others vanished
while a respiratory bug (influenza? bacterial pneumonia?) swept through.
Nine more chimps died in early 1987 from pneumonia. These episodes,
reflecting the susceptibility of chimps to human-carried pathogens, help
explain why scientists at Gombe are acutely concerned with the subject
of infectious disease.
That concern has been heightened by landscape changes outside the
park boundaries. Over the decades people in the surrounding villages
have struggled to live ordinary lives—cutting firewood from the steep
hillsides, planting crops on those slopes, burning the grassy and
scrubby areas each dry season for fertilizing ash, having babies, and
trying to feed them. By the early 1990s deforestation and erosion had
made Gombe National Park an ecological island, surrounded by human
impact on three sides and Lake Tanganyika on the fourth. Within that
island lived no more than about a hundred chimpanzees. By all the
standards of conservation biology, it wasn’t enough to constitute a
viable population for the long term—not enough to ensure against
negative effects of inbreeding, and not enough to stand steady against
an epidemic caused by the next nasty bug, which might be more
transmissible than polio, more lethal than flu. Something had to be
done, Jane realized, besides continued study of a fondly regarded
population of apes that might be doomed. Furthermore, something had to
be done for the people as well as for the chimps.
In a nearby town she met a German-born agriculturist, George
Strunden, and with his help created TACARE (originally the Lake
Tanganyika Catchment Reforestation and Education project), whose first
effort, in 1995, established tree nurseries in 24 villages. The goals
were to reverse the denudation of hillsides, to protect village
watersheds, and maybe eventually to reconnect Gombe with outlying
patches of forest (some of which also harbor chimpanzees) by helping the
villagers plant trees. For instance, there’s a small population of
chimps in a patch of forest called Kwitanga, about ten miles east of
Gombe. To the southeast, about 50 miles, an ecosystem known as
Masito-Ugalla supports more than 500 chimps. If either area could be
linked to Gombe by reforested corridors, the chimps would benefit from
increased gene flow and population size. Then again, they might be hurt
by sharing diseases.
By any measure, it’s a near-impossible challenge. Proceeding
carefully, patiently, Jane and her people have achieved some encouraging
gains in the form of community cooperation, decreased burning, and
natural forest regeneration.
On the second morning of my Gombe visit, along a trail not far
above the house in which Jane has lived intermittently since the early
1970s, I encountered a group of chimpanzees. They were noodling their
way cross slope on a relaxed search for breakfast, moving mostly on the
ground, but occasionally up into a Vitex tree to eat the small
purple-black berries, and were seemingly indifferent to my presence and
that of the Tanzanian researchers. They included some individuals whose
names, or at least their family histories, were familiar. Here was
Gremlin (daughter of Melissa, a young female when Jane first arrived),
Gremlin’s daughter Gaia (with a clinging infant), Gaia’s younger sister
Golden, Pax (son of the notoriously cannibalistic Passion), and Fudge
(son of Fanni, grandson of Fifi, great-grandson of Flo, the beloved,
ugly-nosed matriarch famous from Jane’s early books). Here also was
Titan, a very large male, 15 years old, and still rising toward his
prime. The rules at Gombe National Park say that you must not approach
closely to a chimpanzee, but the tricky thing on a given day is to keep
the chimps from approaching closely to you. When Titan came striding up
the trail, burly and confident, we all squeezed to the edge and let him
swagger past, within inches. A lifetime of familiarity with innocuous
human researchers, their notebooks, and their check sheets, has left him
blasé.
Another reflection of casualness: Gremlin defecated on the trail
not far from where we stood, and then Golden too relieved herself. Once
they had ambled away, a researcher named Samson Shadrack Pindu pulled on
yellow latex gloves and moved in. He crouched over Gremlin’s dollop of
fibrous olive dung, using a small plastic scoop to transfer a bit into a
specimen tube, which he labeled with time, date, location, and
Gremlin’s name. The tube contained a stabilizing liquid called RNAlater,
which preserves any RNA (from, for instance, a retrovirus) for later
genetic analysis. That tube and others like it, representing one fecal
sample every month from as many chimps as possible, were destined for
the laboratory of Beatrice Hahn at the University of Alabama in
Birmingham, who for ten years has been studying simian immunodeficiency
virus at Gombe.
Simian immunodeficiency virus in chimpanzees, known technically as
SIVcpz, is the precursor and origin of HIV-1, the virus that accounts
for most cases of AIDS around the world. (There is also an HIV-2.)
Notwithstanding the name, SIVcpz had never been found to cause immune
system failure in wild chimpanzees—until Hahn’s expertise in molecular
genetics converged with the long-term observational data available at
Gombe. In fact, SIVcpz was thought to be harmless in chimps, an
assumption that raised questions about how or why it has visited such a
lethal pandemic upon humans. Had a few, fateful mutations changed an
innocuous chimp virus into a human killer? That line of thought had to
be modified after publication of a 2009 paper in the journal Nature,
with Brandon F. Keele (then at Hahn’s lab) as first author and Beatrice
Hahn and Jane Goodall among the co-authors. The Keele paper reported
that SIV-positive chimps at Gombe suffered between ten times and 16
times more risk of death at a given age than SIV-negative chimps. And
three SIV-positive carcasses have been found, their tissues (based on
lab work at the molecular level) showing signs of damage resembling
AIDS. The implications are stark. An AIDS-like illness seems to be
killing some of Gombe’s chimps.
Of all the bonds, shared features, and similarities that link our
species with theirs, this revelation is perhaps the most troubling.
“It’s very scary, knowing the chimps seem to be dying at a younger age,”
Jane told me. “I mean, how long has it been there? Where does it come
from? How is it affecting other populations?” For the sake of chimpanzee
survival throughout Africa, those questions urgently need to be
studied.
But this gloomy discovery also carries huge potential significance
for AIDS research in humans. Anthony Collins pointed out that although
SIV has been found elsewhere in chimp communities, “none of them is a
study population habituated to human observers; and certainly none of
them is one which has genealogical information going right back in time;
and none is so tame that you can take samples from every individual
every month.” After a moment, he added, “It’s very sad that the virus is
here, but a lot of knowledge can come out of it. And understanding.”
The fancy new methods of molecular genetics bring more than just
dire revelations about disease. They also bring the exciting, cheerful
capacity to address certain long-standing mysteries about chimpanzee
social dynamics and evolution. For instance: Who are the fathers at
Gombe? Motherhood is obvious, and the intimate relations between mothers
and infants have been well studied by Jane herself, Anne Pusey, and
others. But because female chimps tend to mate promiscuously with many
males, paternity has been far harder to determine. And the question of
paternal identity relates to another question: How does male competition
for status within the hierarchy—all that blustering effort expended to
achieve and hold the rank of alpha—correlate with reproductive success? A
young scientist named Emily Wroblewski, analyzing DNA from fecal
samples gathered by the field team, has reached an answer. She found
that the higher ranking males do succeed in fathering many chimps—but
that some low-ranking males make out pretty well too. The strategy
involves investing effort in a consortship—an exclusive period of
spending time as a pair, traveling together, and mating—often with
younger, less desirable females.
Jane herself had predicted this finding, from observational data,
two decades earlier. “The male who successfully initiates and maintains a
consortship with a fertile female,” she wrote, “probably has a better
chance of fathering her child than he would in the group situation, even
if he were alpha.”
Impelled by broader imperatives, Jane ended her career as a field
biologist in 1986, just after publication of her great scientific book, The Chimpanzees of Gombe.
Since then she has lived as an advocate, a traveling lecturer, a woman
driven by a sense of public mission. What’s the mission? Her first
cause, which arose from her years at Gombe, was improving the grim
treatment inflicted on chimpanzees held in many medical research labs.
Combining her toughness and moral outrage with her personal charm and
willingness to interact graciously, she achieved some negotiated
successes. She also founded sanctuaries for chimps who could be freed
from captivity, including many orphaned by the bush-meat trade. That
work led to her concerns about human conduct toward other species. She
established a program called Jane Goodall’s Roots & Shoots,
encouraging young people around the world to become active in projects
that promote greater concern for animals, the environment, and the human
community. During this period she became an explorer-in-residence at
the National Geographic Society. She now spends about 300 days a year on
the road, giving countless interviews and schoolroom talks, lecturing
in big venues, meeting with government officials, raising money to turn
the wheels of the Jane Goodall Institute. Occasionally she sneaks away
into a forest or onto a prairie, sometimes with a few friends, to watch
chimps or sandhill cranes or black-footed ferrets and to restore her
energy and sanity.
Fifty years ago Louis Leakey sent her to study chimpanzees because
he thought their behavior might cast light on human ancestors, his
chosen subject. Jane ignored that part of the mandate and studied chimps
for their own sake, their own interest, their own value. While doing
that, she created institutions and opportunities that have yielded
richly in the work of other scientists, as well as a luminous personal
example that has brought many young women and men into science and
conservation. It’s important to remember that the meaning of Gombe,
after half a century, is bigger than Jane Goodall’s life and work. But
make no mistake: Her life and work have been very, very big.
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